The Anthropology Lens

Humanity, Leadership and Culture in an Age of Transformation

At its core, anthropology is the study of what it means to be human. It originated in Ancient Greece as a philosophical inquiry into human nature and has since evolved into a systematic discipline that explores human diversity—our culture(s), language(s), biology, and society(-ties).

Today, anthropology extends far beyond academia—it influences fields as diverse as economics, technology, business, and leadership.

Anthropology is not just a subject of study; it is a way of seeing the world that manifests in three distinct ways:

• As an academic discipline – Examining human societies, cultures, evolution, and behavior in a holistic and comparative manner.
• As a philosophical lens – Reflecting on the fundamental nature of humanity and the implicit views of people embedded in institutions, policies, and ideologies.
• As a method and perspective – Applying a contextual and culture-sensitive approach to understanding human behavior, often through ethnographic research and participant observation.

This article will weave between these three dimensions of anthropology to demonstrate its value in business, leadership, and organizational culture.

Anthropology and Organizational Culture

Every organization operates with an implicit anthropology—an underlying set of beliefs and assumptions about humanity and human nature that shapes leadership styles, talent models, business strategies, decision making, and organization culture. Whether acknowledged or not, these assumptions influence how organizations define success, structure work, and interact with employees, customers, and stakeholders.

• Do we see people merely as resources to be managed, or as creative, relational beings with dignity and potential?
• Do our institutions reflect a mechanistic view of human nature, or do they recognize the full depth of human experience?
• Do we exempt business organizations from social responsibility, or do we see them as morally accountable social actors?

These questions are not trivial. The sustainability of our businesses, economies, and societies depends on our answers. Anthropology as a method and perspective can help make the implicit anthropologies explicit, allowing for conscious—and hopefully conscientious—decision-making. Leaders who engage anthropologists or adopt anthropology-informed methods can bring deeper awareness to their decision-making and cultural transformation efforts.

As someone who has studied and applied anthropology, I have used its insights and methods to support the internationalization and globalization of business, develop organization and talent strategies, design DEI strategies and initiatives, and elaborate and cultivate inclusive leadership. Anthropology provides unique and powerful tools to assess (and shift) organizational culture, revealing and shifting deep-rooted cultural dynamics that traditional surveys often miss.

Anthropological Concepts and Their Relevance Today

Foundational anthropological concepts help leaders and organizations navigate complexity with greater insight and effectiveness. Here are the top 10 ideas that have profoundly influenced my practice:

1. Culture. This is anthropology's most central concept. Culture refers to the learned beliefs, behaviors, customs, and material objects that characterize a group. It is transmitted across generations and shapes human experience. Culture is holistic; i.e., different aspects of a society (economics, religion, politics, kinship, etc.) are interconnected. This means that they cannot be understood and/or changed in isolation, but require a holistic perspective and systemic strategy.
2. The Psychic Unity of Humankind. Despite cultural differences, humans share fundamental cognitive and psychological capacities. While organizations must honor diversity, they should also recognize and leverage the shared human connectedness that unites people across cultures.
3. Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism. Ethnocentrism is the common tendency to perceive and judge other cultures by the standards of one's own. This often leads to the belief that one’s own culture is superior (sometimes also inferior), which negatively impacts intercultural exchanges, interactions, relationships and/or integration. Cultural Relativism, on the other hand, is the idea that a culture should be understood within its own context, without imposing external judgments. Developed by Franz Boas, this concept urges us to understand behaviors, beliefs, and values within their cultural contexts rather than judging them by external standards. In leadership and global business, cultural relativism fosters inclusiveness, mitigates ethnocentric biases, and enables interculturally intelligent strategies.
4. The Fluidity of Social Identity. Identity is dynamic, shaped by experiences and interactions, and socially constructed. Organizations that recognize identity as fluid can move beyond rigid labels and create inclusive environments where employees feel free to evolve, explore new perspectives, and integrate diverse aspects of themselves into their work. Particularly in many contemporary societies, where individualization and personalization permeate many aspects of life and expectations, approaching Diversity with static notions of social identity will lose its resonance and relevance. Recognizing the fluidity of social identity can lead to more nuanced ways to see the human world and more inclusive ways of "doing" Diversity in our organizations and institutions.
5. Ritual and Its Importance. Rituals—structured, symbolic actions—reinforce social bonds, recognize shared experience, create and re-affirm belonging and respect, and facilitate change and transformation. From onboarding ceremonies, recognition programs, and transition events, leaders who harness the power of ritual can foster social cohesion and organizational health. Unfortunately, leaders do not sufficiently leverage ritual as part of their change and transformation strategies.
6. Emic and Etic Perspectives. An "emic" perspective is an insider’s view and experience, focusing on how members of the culture understand their own practices, beliefs, and behaviors. An "etic" perspective is an outsider's analytical view of a culture, using universal concepts or categories to compare different societies. This approach is often used to identify general patterns across cultures. Leaders must balance these perspectives, for example, by deeply understanding employee and customer experiences while applying external benchmarks and best practices. Unfortunately, many attempts to "measure" or "evaluate" an organization's culture over-rely on etic perspectives and do not take the emic perspectives into account—particularly when architecting and pursuing culture change initiatives.
7. Kinship. Kinship structures define relationships between individuals and powerfully influence social organization and underlying relational networks of affinity, obligation, and reciprocity. Anthropologists study (and make explicit) different systems of descent, marriage, family, and/or network structures.
8. Power. Anthropologists analyze how power operates in and between groups, institutions, and organizations. Power—the ability to determine, influence, and change the internal and external state of others—operates in formal political systems, informal power relations, and is reflected in patterns of inequality, inequity, and marginalization, and the associated conscious and unconscious biases, preferences, and social stigma and stigmatization. By critically analyzing the formal aspects of power and making the implicit, unconscious power dynamics explicit, an anthropological lens can help develop more just, equitable, and meritocratic social systems and help evolve institutions and systems to become fairer, more cohesive, more sustainable, and truly inclusive.
9. Patterns of Subjective Experience and Intersubjectivity. Organizational culture is not just about written values and policies—it is lived through daily choices, interactions, and unspoken norms. These are significantly driven by the way the organization and its culture are experienced by and among its members (i.e., their emic perspective). Understanding subjective experiences and their patterns is key to understanding, predicting, and influencing the social dynamics and the cultural development within a group. This allows leaders to identify underlying drivers of behavior and power dynamics that determine their success or failure.
10. The Role of Symbols and Meaning-Making. Humans assign meaning to objects, actions, and words through the use of signs and symbols. Successful organizations and leaders actively manage these meanings to create alignment, motivation, and a shared identity among employees and stakeholders. They also recognize when, as a result of crises and/or failures, symbols emerge and/or shift in order to re-establish resonance and social traction that is essential to their leadership.

What underpins the anthropological lens is the importance of situations and context in human social behavior. Unlike experimental psychology, which isolates variables, anthropology emphasizes that human behavior needs to be studied and understood in context and across specific situations. Leaders must consider context and situations when designing and/or changing social systems, processes, and practices. This is particularly relevant in the face of the complex challenges.

Rethinking What It Means to Be Human in the Age of Machines

From our ability to create culture to our unique forms of communication and social organization, particularly in Western religion and science, we have drawn sharp lines between ourselves and the non-human world. But the emergence of Artificial Intelligence (AI)—and simultaneously new scientific discoveries about intelligence and culture among animals—is challenging these boundaries in fundamental ways. This makes the question about what it means to be human particularly relevant.

AI systems can now engage in complex problem-solving, generate creative works, and even mimic human conversation with uncanny realism. They blur distinctions between human and machine agency, forcing us to rethink fundamental concepts such as intelligence, creativity, and autonomy. If an AI can compose music that moves us emotionally or generate art that rivals human-made masterpieces, does it possess a form of creativity? If it can interact with us in ways that feel personal and responsive, does it have a social presence?

At the same time, scientific research is revealing that animals—such as chimpanzees, orangutans, dolphins, elephants, crows, and octopuses—exhibit behaviors once thought to be uniquely human. Chimpanzees and orangutans pass down learned behaviors across generations, creating distinct cultural traditions such as tool use and foraging techniques.

Dolphins have been observed teaching their young unique hunting strategies and using signature whistles akin to names. Elephants display remarkable memory, cooperative problem-solving, and even mourning rituals for their dead. Crows and other corvids craft tools and demonstrate an ability to plan for the future, while octopuses exhibit problem-solving skills and individual personality traits, hinting at complex cognition. These findings further complicate traditional notions of intelligence and identity, forcing us to reconsider whether human exceptionalism is—and has ever been—a tenable position.

These questions are not just theoretical; they have profound implications for our sense of identity and belonging. Historically, humans have defined themselves in contrast to other entities, such as animals, spirits, or machines. However, as AI becomes increasingly integrated into our daily lives and we recognize the cultural complexity in the animal kingdom, we may need to reconsider the relationship between humans and non-human beings. This includes reconsidering their legal status and rights, as well as the profound restructuring of relationships.

Some argue that AI’s rise highlights what remains uniquely human: our embodiment, our lived experiences, and our emotions, grounded in both biological and cultural contexts. Others suggest that intelligence itself—once thought to be humanity’s defining trait—may not be exclusively ours after all.

In response, anthropologists and ethicists must grapple with emerging cultural narratives around AI: How do different societies conceptualize AI? What fears or hopes does it evoke across cultures? And how will these perceptions shape our collective future?

As AI advances and our understanding of animal intelligence deepens, anthropology remains essential in helping us navigate these existential questions. The study of human identity must now extend beyond biological and cultural evolution to include our relationship with both artificial beings and our non-human counterparts in nature. In doing so, we might uncover new ways of understanding not just machines and animals, but ourselves.

Understanding and Re-shaping the Human-Environment Relationship

Climate change is not just an environmental crisis—it is a cultural and social one as well. Anthropology provides critical insights into how human societies interact with their environments, adapt to ecological shifts, and develop sustainable practices. By studying traditional ecological knowledge, anthropologists uncover ways in which Indigenous and local communities have long managed resources sustainably, offering valuable lessons for modern climate resilience.

[But, true inclusiveness of our collective ecological wisdom and the value of indigenous knowledge cannot be realized if we do not address the painful history that has sought to marginalize and even extinguish them. It will require restoration and healing of intergenerational historical trauma! In this aspect a self-reflective, humble, engaged, and practical application of anthropological insights can assist in bringing about the collective healing required.]

Moreover, anthropology highlights the diverse ways different cultures perceive and respond to climate change. While some societies may see it as an existential threat, others may frame it through spiritual, economic, or political lenses. Understanding these perspectives is crucial for designing effective climate policies and interventions that are culturally informed and socially just. Anthropologists work on the ground with communities affected by climate disruptions, advocating for climate justice, documenting displacement, and informing policy decisions that respect diverse worldviews.

As global climate action progresses, anthropology can help ensure that solutions are not one-size-fits-all, but rather grounded in the lived experiences, histories, and wisdom of the world's diverse populations.

Navigating Complexity

In our interconnected and complex world, leadership demands intercultural intelligence, adaptability, and a deep understanding of human behavior. Anthropological perspectives and insights equip leaders with the ability to navigate diverse social contexts, understand group dynamics, and recognize the underlying cultural forces and shape them through their decision-making and embodied practice.

Whether in business, politics, or non-profit organizations, anthropological insights help leaders foster inclusive environments, mediate cross-cultural conflicts, and design strategies that resonate with different communities. Anthropologists study power structures, communication patterns, and organizational cultures, providing leaders with tools to manage change and drive innovation effectively.

By applying ethnographic methods such as deep listening and participant observation, anthropology encourages leaders to approach challenges holistically, considering not just economic and logistical factors but also social values, historical contexts, and human relationships. This human-centered approach to leadership is particularly crucial in responding to complex challenges, particularly those posed by AI and climate change.

As AI reshapes industries and workforces, leaders must navigate ethical considerations, technological disruptions, and evolving notions of human agency. Anthropological insights can help leaders understand how different cultures perceive AI and ensure that policies and strategies are aligned with diverse societal values.

Similarly, addressing climate change requires leadership that is attuned to cultural differences in environmental stewardship, community resilience, and climate justice. Anthropology provides leaders with the tools to bridge these gaps, fostering solutions that are inclusive, ethical, and sustainable in the face of global transformations.

A Humanistic Anthropology for the Future

In an era of profound transformations, human organizations of all kinds face complex social and cultural challenges. A humanistic anthropology that focuses on and advocates for human dignity, cultural context, and lived experience is no longer just an ethical consideration; it is a strategic necessity.

When leaders adopt an anthropological perspective, they move beyond transactional approaches and foster relational environments where diverse talent thrives, culture is understood holistically, and innovation emerges from deep human insight. Anthropology challenges universalizing assumptions and underscores the critical role of context in shaping human behavior.

For organizations navigating cultural complexity, anthropology-based approaches offer surprising insights and unconventional yet highly effective solutions. Rather than relying on quick fixes, anthropology fosters sustainable change by uncovering the deeper, often invisible, cultural forces at play.

As we shape the future, we must ask:

• What kind of anthropology do we embrace (individually and within our systems)? One that reduces people to numbers, or one that acknowledges their full humanity and contributes to human thriving?
• How can we leverage anthropology to enrich leadership development and guide our organizational strategy, collective growth, and thriving?
• How can anthropology-based skills support us in building a more inclusive culture and a better future?

Anthropology doesn’t offer simple answers—it provides a way of seeing the world rooted in curiosity and better questions; questions that reveal connections and open paths to unconventional solutions. In a time of complexity and change, that may be our most valuable tool.

This article was written by Jörg Schmitz, Managing Director of the Inclusive Leadership Institute.